2008, www.nationalgeographic.com.

317

Holly Dranginis, “Congo’s Charcoal Cartel,” Foreign Affairs, May 12, 2016, https://www.foreignaffairs.com.

318

Behrendt et al., “Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin,” 1.

319

Sophie Lewisohn, “Virunga: Preserving Africa’s National Parks Through People-Centred Development,” Capacity4dev, European Union, April 3, 2018, https://europa.eu/capacity4dev/articles/virunga-preserving-africas-national-parks-through-people-centred-development. Amy Yee, “The Power Plants That May Save a Park, and Aid a Country,” New York Times, August 30, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com.

320

Andrew Plumptre (senior scientist, Africa Program, Wildlife Conservation Society) in discussion with the author, February 10, 2015, and November 6, 2019.

321

Michael J. Kavanagh (journalist) in discussion with the author, November 29, 2014.

322

Abe Streep, “The Belgian Prince Taking Bullets to Save the World’s Most Threatened Park,” Outside, November 5, 2014, https://www.outsideonline.com.

323

Abe Streep, “The Belgian Prince Taking Bullets to Save the World’s Most Threatened Park,” Outside, November 5, 2014, https://www.outsideonline.com.

324

Jeffrey Gettlemen, “Oil Dispute Takes a Page from Congo’s Bloody Past,” New York Times, November 15, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com.

325

George Schaller, The Year of the Gorilla (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 3.

326

George Schaller, The Year of the Gorilla (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 8.

327

Paul Raffaele, “Gorillas in Their Midst,” Smithsonian, October 2007, https://www.smithsonianmag.com.

328

Andrew J. Plumptre et al., “Conservation Action Plan for the Albertine Rift” (unpublished report for Wildlife Conservation Society and its partners, 2016), 5, 7.

329

“What I was hearing in the mid-90s and early 2000s while working for IGCP was that the conflict in the DRC was all about greed and people wanting to exploit the minerals. Others said it was all about grievances and the Rwandan conflict. Doing my PhD I came to the conclusion that both aspects are at play, but the causes of the conflict stem from grievances.” Michael Shellenberger, “Violence, the Virungas, and Gorillas: An Interview with Conservationist Helga Rainer,” Breakthrough Institute, November 20, 2014, https://thebreakthrough.org/issues/conservation/violence-the-virungas-and-gorillas.

330

Mark Dowie, Conservation Refugees: The Hundred-Year Conflict Between Global Conservation and Native Peoples (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), xxi.

331

Mahesh Rangarajan and Ghazala Shahabuddin, “Displacement and Relocation from Protected Areas,” Conservation and Society 4, no. 3 (September 2006): 359, https://www.conservationandsociety.org.

332

Mark Dowie, Conservation Refugees: The Hundred-Year Conflict Between Global Conservation and Native Peoples.

333

Ibid., xxvi.

334

Sammy Zahran, Jeffrey G. Snodgrass, David G. Maranon et al., “Stress and Telomere Shortening Among Central Indian Conservation Refugees,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112, no. 9 (March 3, 2015): E928–E936, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1411902112.

335

A. J. Plumptre, A. Kayitare, H. Rainer et al., “The Socio-economic Status of People Living near Protected Areas in the Central Albertine Rift,” Albertine Rift Technical Reports 4 (2004), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235945000_Socioeconomic_status_of_people_in_the_Central_Albertine_Rift, 28.

336

Alastair McNeilage (primatologist, Wildlife Conservation Society) in discussion with the author, February 5, 2015.

337

Plumptre et al., “The Socio-economic Status of People Living near Protected Areas in the Central Albertine Rift,” 98.

338

Michael Shellenberger, “Postcolonial Gorilla Conservation: An Interview with Ecologist Sarah Sawyer,” Breakthrough Institute, November 19, 2014, https://thebreakthrough.org/issues/conservation/postcolonial-gorilla-conservation.

339

Michael Shellenberger, “Postcolonial Gorilla Conservation: An Interview with Ecologist Sarah Sawyer,” Breakthrough Institute, November 19, 2014, https://thebreakthrough.org/issues/conservation/postcolonial-gorilla-conservation.

340

Andrew Plumptre (senior scientist, Africa Program, Wildlife Conservation Society) in discussion with the author, November 6, 2019.

341

“2019–2020 Gorilla Tracking Permit Availability Uganda/Rwanda,” Kisoro Tours Uganda, https://kisorotoursuganda.com/2019-2020-gorilla-tracking-permit-availability-uganda-rwanda. Uganda remains a relative bargain at just $600.

342

Michael Shellenberger, “Postcolonial Gorilla Conservation: An Interview with Ecologist Sarah Sawyer,” https://thebreakthrough.org/issues/conservation/violence-the-virungas-and-gorillas.

343

Plumptre et al., “The Socio-economic Status of People Living near Protected Areas in the Central Albertine Rift,” Albertine Rift Technical Reports 4 (2004): 116, https://albertinerift.wcs.org.

344

Alastair McNeilage (primatologist, Wildlife Conservation Society) in discussion with the author, February 5, 2015.

345

Andrew Plumptre (senior scientist, Africa Program, Wildlife Conservation Society) in discussion with the author, February 10, 2015, and November 6, 2019.

346

Michael Shellenberger, “Violence, the Virungas, and Gorillas: An Interview with Conservationist Helga Rainer.”

347

Andrew Plumptre et al., “The Socio-economic Status of People Living near Protected Areas in the Central Albertine Rift,” 25.

348

Michael Shellenberger, “Postcolonial Gorilla Conservation: An Interview with Ecologist Sarah Sawyer.”

349

Andrew Plumptre (senior scientist, Africa Program, Wildlife Conservation Society) in discussion with the author, February 10, 2015.

350

Andrew Plumptre (senior scientist, Africa Program, Wildlife Conservation Society) in discussion with the author, November 6, 2019.

351

Andrew Plumptre (senior scientist, Africa Program, Wildlife Conservation Society) in discussion with the author, November 6, 2019.

352

Andrew Plumptre (senior scientist, Africa Program, Wildlife Conservation Society) in discussion with the author, November 6, 2019.

353

“Once accustomed to harvesting game with traditional weapons for their own community’s use, expelled natives often buy rifles, re-enter their former hunting grounds, and begin poaching larger numbers of the same game for the