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1. H. Kohn The Twentieth Century: a Midway Account of the Western World (London, 1950), p. 65.

2. T. Todorov Hope and Memory: Refl ections on the Twentieth Century (London, 2003), pp. 75–7.

3. Todorov, Hope and Memory, p. 82.

4. A. Besançon ‘Nazisme et communisme, également criminels’, Vest européen, 35 (1997), pp. 3–6. See also W. Dlugoborski ‘Das Problem des Vergleichs von Nationalsozialismus und Stalinismus’ in D. Dahlmann and G. Hirschfeld (eds) Lager, Zwangsarbeit, Vertreibung und Deportation (Essen, 1999), pp. 19–28; E. Jahn’Zum Problem der Vergleichbarkeit von Massenverfolgung und Massenvernichtung’ in ibid., pp. 29–51.

5. S. Courtois, N. Werth, et al. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, Mass., 1999).

6. D. Rayfi eld Stalin and his Hangmen (London, 2004). On Hitler, R. G. Waite The Psychopathie God: Adolf Hitler (New York, 1978); E. H. Schwaab Hitler’s Mind: A Plunge into Madness (New York, 1992); F. Redlich Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive Prophet (Oxford, 1999), esp. ch. 9.

7. A. Bullock Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives (London, 1991).

8. On Hitler there is the standard two-volume biography by I. Kershaw Hitler: Hubris 1889–1936 (London, 1998) and Hitler: Nemesis 1936–1945 (London, 2000). On Stalin, D. Volkogonov Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (London, 1991); S. Sebag Montefi ore Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (London, 2003).

9. On Germany see M. Burleigh The Third Reich: a New History (London, 2000); on the Soviet Union, R. Service A History of Twentieth-Century Russia (London, 1997).

10. R. H. McNeal Stalin: Man and Ruler (London, 1988), p. 237.

11. F. Genoud (ed.) The Testament of Adolf Hitler (London, 1960), p. 100, entry for 26 February 1945.

12. H. Heiber and D. M. Glantz (eds) Hitler and His Generals: Military Conferences 1942–1945 (London, 2003), p. 388, meeting of the Führer with General Reinecke, 7 January 1944.

13. On Stalin see E. van Ree The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin (London, 2002). On Hitler, R. Zitelmann Hitler: the Politics of Seduction (London, 1999); F. L. Kroll Utopie als Ideologie: Geschichtsdenken und politisches Handeln im Dritten Reich (Paderborn, 1998).

14. On German infl ation G. Feldman The Great Disorder: Politics, Economics, and Society in the German Infl ation 1914–1924 (Oxford, 1993); on Soviet infl ation L. E. Hubbard Soviet Money and Finance (London, 1936), chs. 1, 4.

15. V. Serge, The Case of Comrade Tulayev (London, 1968), p. 88.

1. A. Hitler Mein Kampfe ed. D. C. Watt (London, 1969).

2. R. Service Lenin (London, 2000), pp. 462–5.

3. Service, Lenin, p. 467; E. Radzinsky Stalin (London, 1996), pp. 193–4.

4. Service, Lenin, p. 469.

5. B. Bazhanov Avec Staline dans le Kremlin (Paris, 1930), p. 43.

6. D. Volkogonov Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (London, 1991), pp. 93–4; Bazhanov, Avec Staline dans le Kremlin, p. 48.

7. E. Hanfstaengl Hitler: the Missing Years (London, 1957), p. 108.

8. L. Gruchmann and R. Weber (eds) Der Hitler-Prozess 1924: Wortlaut der Hauptverhandlung vor den Volksgericht München

(4 vols, Munich, 1997) vol. i, pp. xxxv – xxxvii.

9. O. Gritschner Der Hitler-Prozess und sein Richter Georg Neithardt (Munich, 2001), p. 42.

10. Gruchmann and Weber, Der Hitler-Prozess, vol. iv, p. 1591.

11. Hanfstaengl, Hitler, p. 114; W. R. Hess (ed.) Rudolf Hess: Briefe, 1908–1933 (Munich 1987), p. 322, letter from Hess to Use Pröhl, 12 May 1924.

12. Gritschner, Der Hitler-Prozess, p. 62.

13. On Stalin, W. Duranty Stalin and Co: The Politburo and the Men who Rule Russia (London, 1949), p. 39; on Hitler, Imperial War

Museum, Speer Collection, Box 369, Part III, exploitation of Albert Speer, ‘Adolf Hitler’, 19 Oct 1945, p. 19. See too, T. Junge Until the Final Hour. Hitler’s Last Secretary (London, 2003), p. 130, who recalled Hitler’s comment after the bomb exploded at his headquarters in July 1944: ‘Well, ladies, everything turned out all right again. Yet more proof that Fate has chosen me for my mission.’ See too, W. S. Allen (ed.) The Infancy of Nazism: The Memoirs of Ex-Gauleiter Albert Krebs 1923–1933 (New York, 1976), p. 181: ‘Providence,’ Hess told Krebs in 1931, ‘has always inspired him [Hitler] to do the right thing.’

14. Duranty, Stalin and Co, p. 38.

15. On his medical history N. Romano-Petrova Stalin’s Doctor: Stalin’s Nurse: A Memoir (Princeton, NJ, 1984), pp. 5–6.