117. Kuromiya, Stalin’s Industrial Revolution, p. 17; J. Hughes ‘Capturing the Russian Peasantry: Stalinist Grain Procurement Policy and the “Urals-Siberian” Method’, Slavic Review, 53 (1994), pp. 77–8. See too J. Hughes Stalin, Siberia and the crisis of the New Economic Policy (Cambridge, 1991), esp. chs 5–6.

118. Hughes, ‘Capturing the Peasantry’, p. 87; J. Hughes ‘Re-evaluating Stalin’s Peasant Policy 1928–30’ in J. Pallot (ed.) Transforming Peasants: Society, State and the Peasantry 1861–1930 (London, 1998), pp. 242–50, 255–6.

119. Hughes, ‘Capturing the Peasantry’, pp. 80–81; M. Lewin Russian Peasants and Soviet Power: a Study of Collectivization (New York, 1975) chs 16–17.

120. R. C. Nation Black Earth, Red Star: A History of Soviet Security Policy 1917–1991 (Ithaca, NY, 1992), p. 61; Kuromiya, Stalin’s Industrial Revolution, p. 15; on the fate of bourgeois experts see N. Jasny Soviet Economists of the Twenties (Cambridge, 1972), pp. 119, 127, 144.

121. R. W. Davies, M. Harrison and S. G. Wheatcroft (eds) The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union 1913–1945 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 113–14, 290.

122. L. Viola Peasant Rebels under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance (Oxford, 1996), pp. 105, 139–40; see too T. Macdonald ‘A Peasant Rebellion in Stalin’s Russia’ in L. Viola (ed.) Contending with Stalinism: Soviet Power and Popular Resistance in the 1930s (Ithaca, NY, 2002), pp. 84–108.

123. Viola, Peasant Rebels, pp. 171–2.

124. Davies, Harrison and Wheatcroft, Economic Transformation, p. 68.

125. R. W. Davies, O. V. Khlevniuk, E. A. Rees, L. P. Kosheleva and L. A. Rogovaya (eds) The Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence

1931–1936 (New Haven, Conn. 2003) pp. 180–81, letter from Stalin to Kaganovich, 11 August 1932. On the famine see S. G. Wheatcroft ‘More Light on the Scale of Repression and Excess Mortality in the Soviet Union in the 1930s’ in J. A. Getty and R. Manning (eds) Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993) pp. 278–89. Extrapolations from the demographic data suggest excess mortality of 4–5 million in total attributable to famine and its effects.

126. J. Rossman ‘A Workers’ Strike in Stalin’s Russia’ in Viola (ed.), Contending with Stalinism, pp. 45–6; J. Haslam ‘Political Opposition to Stalin and the Origins of the Terror in Russia, 1932–1936’, The Historical Journal, 29 (1986), pp. 396–9; B. Starkov ‘Trotsky and Ryutin: from the history of the anti-Stalin resistance in the 1930s’ in T. Brotherstone and P. Dukes (eds) The Trotsky Reappraisal (Edinburgh, 1992), pp. 71–3.

127. Kuromiya, Stalin’s Industrial Revolution, p. 21.

128. R. G. Suny ‘Stalin and his Stalinism’, in I. Kershaw and M. Lewin (eds) Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 46–7.

129. Lewin, Russian Peasants, p. 448.

130. R. Gaucher Opposition in the USSR, 1917–1967 (New York, 1969), p. 270.

131. The standard work is H. James The German Slump: Politics and Economics 1924–1936 (Oxford, 1986); see too J. von Krüdener (ed.) Economic Crisis and Political Collapse: the Weimar Republic 1924–1933 (Oxford, 1990).

132. S. Haffner Defying Hitler: a Memoir (London, 2002), p. 68.

133. D. Schumann Politisches Gewalt in der Weimarer Republik 1919–1933 (Essen, 2000), pp. 320, 335–7.

134. Zitelmann, Hitler, pp. 33–53, 62–75. ‘Our Party,’ Hitler announced in a speech in 1920, ‘must have a revolutionary character’; or in 1921, The salvation of Germany can only come… through revolution’ (p. 62).

135. T. Abel Why Hitler Came into Power: an Answer Based on the Original Life Stories of Six Hundred of his Followers (New York, 1938), p. 93.

136. Haffner, Defying Hitler, p. 71.

137. Stachura, Strasser, p. 76.

138. See P. Fritzsche Germans into Nazis (Cambridge, Mass., 1998), pp. 209ff. In general see C. Fischer The Rise of the Nazis (Manchester, 2002); M. Broszat Hitler and the Collapse of Weimar Germany (Leamington Spa, 1987); H. A. Turner Hitler’s Thirty Days to Power: January 1933 (London, 1996).

139. Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Communist Party, pp. 1–2.

140. J. Biesemann Das Ermächtigungsgesetz als Grundlage der Gesetzgebung im nationalsozialistischen Staat (Münster, 1985), pp. 279–82.

141. Stalin, Works, vol. xiii, p. 354.

142. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 198.

143. J. Toland Adolf Hitler (New York, 1976), p. 361; H. Burden The Nuremberg Party Rallies: 1923–39 (London, 1967), pp. 76, 80–81.

144. Longerich, Die braunen Bataillone, p. 184. By mid-1934 the SA numbered 4.5 million. On the background see K. Heiden The Führer (New York, 1944), pp. 570–82; Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, pp. 500–507.

145. Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, p. 517.

146. Details in H.-G. Seraphim (ed.) Das politische Tagebuch Alfred Roenbergs aus den Jahren 1934/35 und 1939/40 (Göttingen, 1956), pp. 33–5.

147. M. Domarus Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen 1932–1945: Band I Triumph (Munich, 1965), p. 405.

148. Domarus, Hitler: Reden, p. 406.

149. Domarus, Hitler: Reden, pp. 424–5.

150. A. Knight Who Killed Kirov? The Kremlin’s Greatest Mystery (New York, 1999), p. 115.

151. Knight, Who Killed Kirov? pp. 172–4; Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 200.

152. Knight, Who Killed Kirov? pp. 169–70; Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, pp. 205–6.

153. Knight, Who Killed Kirov? p. 183.

154. Knight, Who Killed Kirov? pp. 197–8; Getty and Manning, Stalinist Terror, pp. 45–9; M. Lenoe ‘Did Stalin Kill Kirov and Does it Matter?’, Journal of Modern History, 74 (2002), pp. 352–80.

155. On the ‘Lex Kirov’ Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 208.

156. V. M. Berezhkov At Stalin’s Side (New York, 1994), p. 10.

1. D. Beetham Max Weber and the Theory of Modern Politics (London, 1974), p. 236.

2. A. Avtorkhanov The Communist Party Apparatus (Chicago, 1966), p. 52.

3. V. Garros, N. Korenevskaya and T. Lahusen (eds) Intimacy and Terror: Soviet Diaries of the 1930s (New York, 1995), pp. 205–6, diary of Galina Shtange, 12 December 1937, p. 357, diary of Lyubov Shaporina, 12 December 1937.

4. Garros et al., Intimacy and Terror, p. 206.

5. Garros et al., Intimacy and Terror, p. 357.

6. S. Labin Stalin’s Russia (London, 1949), p. 34.

7. L. Siegelbaum and A. Sokolov (eds) Stalinism as a Way of Life (New Haven, Conn., 2000), pp. 159–63; K.Petrone Life Has Become More Joyous, Comrades: Celebrations in the Time of Stalin (Bloomington, Ind., 2000), p. 175.