class="p">38

Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser, “Global Deaths from Natural Disasters,” Our World in Data, accessed October 25, 2019, https://ourworldindata.org/natural-disasters. Data published by EMDAT (2019): OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, Université Catholique de Louvain – Brussels – Belgium. Data for individual years are summed over ten-year intervals from first to last year of each calendar decade.

39

Giuseppe Formetta and Luc Feyen, “Empirical Evidence of Declining Global Vulnerability to Climate-Related Hazards,” Global Environmental Change 57 (July 2019): article 101920, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.05.004.

40

“Sea Level Change: Scientific Understanding and Uncertainties,” in Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis, edited by Thomas F. Stocker, Dahe Quin, Gian-Kasper Plattner et al., Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2013, https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/WG1AR5_SummaryVolume_FINAL.pdf, 47–59.

41

The Zuidplaspolder in the western Netherlands is 6.76m below sea level. The IPCC in its Medium scenario (RCP4.5) predicts a 0.39m median sea level rise from a 1990 baseline through year 2200.

42

“Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100,” Dutch Water Sector, May 20, 2019, https://www.dutchwatersector.com/news/bangladesh-delta-plan-2100; “Deltaplan Bangladesh,” Deltares, https://www.deltares.nl/en/projects/deltaplan-bangladesh-2.

43

Jon. E. Keeley (U.S. Geological Survey scientist), in discussion with the author, November 4, 2019; Jon. E. Keeley and Alexandra Syphard, “Different historical fire – climate patterns in California,”International Journal of Wildland Fire 26, no. 4 (January 2017): 253, https://doi.org/10.1071/WF16102.

44

Alexandra D. Syphard, John E. Keeley, Anne H. Pfaff, and Ken Ferschweiler, “Human Presence Diminishes the Importance of Climate in Driving Fire Activity Across the United States,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114, no. 52 (December 2017): 13750–55, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1713885114.

45

Alexandria Symonds, “Amazon Rainforest Fires: Here’s What’s Really Happening,” New York Times, August 23, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com.

46

Timothy D. Clark, Graham D. Raby, Dominique G. Roche et al., “Ocean Acidification Does Not Impair the Behaviour of Coral Reef Fishes,” Nature 557 (2020): 370–75, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1903-y. John Ross, “Ex-judge to Investigate Controversial Marine Research,” Times Higher Education, January 8, 2020.

47

The Future of Food and Agriculture: Alternative Pathways to 2050, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2018, http://www.fao.org/3/I8429EN/i8429en.pdf, 76–77.

48

Eric Holt-Giménez, Annie Shattuck, Miguel Altieri, et al., “We Already Grow Enough Food for 10 Billion People… and Still Can’t End Hunger,” Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 36, no. 6 (2012): 595–98, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10440046.2012.695331. The Future of Food and Agriculture: Alternative Pathways to 2050, 82.

49

The Future of Food and Agriculture: Alternative Pathways to 2050, 76–77.

50

“IPCC, “Mitigation Pathways Compatible with 1.5°C in the Context of Sustainable Development”, In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report. 2018. Nordhaus, William. “Projections and Uncertainties About Climate Change in an Era of Minimal Climate Policies.” 2018. doi:10.3386/w22933.41. Though some experts call the country “Democratic Republic of the Congo,” in part because there is a different, smaller nation called “Republic of the Congo,” many in the DRC refer to it simply as “the Congo.”

51

For more information on the Great African War and its impact on the Congo, see David Van Reybrouck, Congo: The Epic History of a People (New York: HarperCollins, 2010) and Gérard Prunier, Africa’s World Wars: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010), 338.

52

“Democratic Republic of the Congo Travel Advisory,” U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs, January 2, 2020, https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/traveladvisories/traveladvisories/democratic-republic-of-the-congo-travel-advisory.html.

53

“Access to Electricity (% of Population): Congo, Rep., Congo, Dem. Rep,” World Bank Group, https://data.worldbank.org.

54

Africa Energy Outlook: A Focus on Energy Prospects in Sub-Saharan Africa(Paris: International Energy Agency, 2014), 32.

55

Pauline Bax and Williams Clowes, “Three Gorges Has Nothing on ChinaBacked Dam to Power Africa,” Bloomberg, August 5, 2019, https://www.bloomberg.com.

56

Katharine J. Mach, Caroline M. Kraan, W. Neil Adger et al., “Climate as a Risk Factor for Armed Conflict,” Nature 571 (2019): 193–97, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1300-6.

57

“Globally, medium to high levels of land degradation are related to increased conflict, as are very high levels of water scarcity, but the relative increases in risk are quite small. Increasing levels of land degradation increase the risk of conflict from a baseline of 1 percent to between 2–4 percent.” Hedrik Urdal, “People vs. Malthus: Population Pressure, Environmental Degradation and Armed Conflict Revisited,” Journal of Peace Research 42 (2005): 417–34, https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343305054089. Clionadh Raleigh and Henrik Urdal, “Climate Change, Demography, Environmental Degradation and Armed Conflict,” Environmental Change and Security Programme 13 (2008–2009): 27–33, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2007.06.005.

58

Michael Oppenheimer, Bruce C. Glavovic, Jochen Hinkel et al., “Sea Level Rise and Implications for Low-Lying Islands, Coasts and Communities,” in IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2019, https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/11/08_SROCC_Ch04_FINAL.pdf, 321–445.

59

Clionadh Raleigh and Henrik Urdal, “Climate Change, Demography, Environmental Degradation and Armed Conflict,” Environmental Change and Security Programme 13 (2008–2009): 27–33, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2007.06.005.

60

David Van Reybrouk, Congo: An Epic History of a People (New York: HarperCollins, 2014).

61

World Bank, “GDP (current US$)-Congo, Dem. Rep.,” World Bank, accessed January 15, 2020, https://data.worldbank.org.

62

Ibid.

63

Peter Jones and David Smith, “UN Report on Rwanda Fuelling Congo Conflict ‘Blocked by US,’ ” The Guardian, June 20, 2012, https://www.theguardian.com.

64

Tom Wilson, David Blood, and David Pilling, “Congo Voting Data Reveal Huge Fraud