19. J. Smith The Bolsheviks and the National Question 1917–1923 (London, 1999), p. 240.

20. G. Simon ‘Nationsbildung und “Revolution von oben”: Zur neuen sowjetischen Nationalitätenpolitik der dreissiger Jahre’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 8 (1992), p. 46; B. Chiclo ‘Histoire de la formation des territoires autonomes chez les peoples turco-mongols de siberie’, Cahiers du monde russe, 28 (1987), pp. 390–92.

21. M. M. Feinstein ‘Deutschland über alles? The National Anthem Debate in the Federal Republic of Germany’, Central European History, 33 (2000), pp. 506–9.

22. G. H. Herb Under the Map of Germany: Nationalism and Propaganda 1918–1945 (London, 1997), pp. 136–9.

23. A. Kolnai The War Against the West (London, 1938), p. 394.

24. S. Vopel ‘Radikaler, völkischer Nationalismus in Deutschland 1917–1933’, in H. Timmermann (ed.) Nationalismus und Nationalbewegung in Europa 1914–1945 (Berlin, 1999), pp. 162–75.

25. J. Stalin Works (13 volumes, Moscow, 1952–55), vol. ii, pp. 303–7, ‘Marxism and the National Question’, January 1913.

26. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, p. 321.

27. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, p. 296, ‘On the Road to Nationalism: a Letter from the Caucasus’, 12 January 1913.

28. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, pp. 322, 359, 375–7.

29. E. Koutaissoff ‘Literacy and the Place of Russian in the Non-Slav Republics of the USSR’, Soviet Studies, 3 (1951), p. 115. Stalin formulated the phrase in a speech given on 18 May 1925.

30. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, p. 153, ‘Foundations of Leninism’, April 1924.

31. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, p. 109.

32. G. Simon Nationalism and Policy Toward the Nationalities in the Soviet Union (Boulder, Colo., 1991), p. 248; Y. Slezkine ‘The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism’, Slavic Review, 53 (1994), p. 437; see too P. Skalnik ‘Soviet etnografi ia and the nation(alities) question’, Cahiers du monde russe, 31 (1990), pp. 183–4.

33. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 348; A. Hitler, The Secret Book (ed. T. Taylor, New York, 1961), pp. 6, 29, 44; Stalin’s remark in Slezkine, The USSR as Communal Apartment’, p. 445.

34. Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 299, 339–40.

35. Hitler, Secret Book, p. 29.

36. Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 271–7; Hitler, Secret Book, pp. 212–13.

37. W. Maser (ed.) Hitler’s Letters and Notes (New York, 1974), p. 221; Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 273.

38. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 355.

39. H. C. D’Encausse The Great Challenge: Nationalities and the Bolshevik State 1917–1930 (New York, 1992), pp. 135–7, 217; Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 23–4.

40. F. Hirsch The Soviet Union as a Work-in-Progress: Ethnographers and the Category Nationality in the 1926, 1937 and 1939 Censuses’, Slavic Review, 56 (1997), pp. 251–64.

41. S. Crisp ‘Soviet Language Planning 1917–1953’, in M. Kirkwood Language Planning in the Soviet Union (London, 1989), pp. 26–7.

42. Simon, Nationalism and Policy, p. 50.

43. Koutaissoff, ‘Literacy and the Place of Russian’, pp. 120–21.

44. S. L. Guthier The Belorussians: National Identifi cation and Assimilation 1897–1970: Part T, Soviet Studies, 29 (1977), p. 55.

45. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, p. 376.

46. J. Smith The Education of National Minorities: the Early Soviet Experience’, Slavonic and East European Review, 75 (1997), p. 302; Y. Bilinsky ‘Education and the Non-Russian Peoples in the USSR, 1917–1967: an Essay’, Slavic Review, 27 (1968), pp. 419–20.

47. Simon, Nationalism and Policy, p. 240; Crisp, ‘Soviet Language Planning’, p. 38; I. Baldauf ‘Some Thoughts on the Making of the Uzbek Nation’, Cahiers du monde russe, 32 (1991), pp. 86–9.

48. G. O. Liber Soviet Nationality Policy, Urban Growth, and Identity Change in the Ukrainian SSR 1923–1935 (Cambridge, 1992), p. 187.

49. Liber, Soviet Nationality Policy, appendix 14.

50. Martin, ‘Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, pp. 842–4.

51. Simon, ‘Nationsbildung und “Revolution von oben”’, pp. 233–4, 247–9.

52. Hirsch, The Soviet Union as a Work-in-Progress’, pp. 271–4.

53. Royal Institute of International Affairs Nationalism (London, 1939), p. 78.

54. Crisp, ‘Soviet Language Planning’, pp. 28–9; Bilinsky, ‘Education and the Non-Russian Peoples’, p. 428; Koutaissoff, ‘Literacy and the Place of Russian’, p. 114; Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 150–51.

55. Details in Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 142–5.

56. Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 144–5, 148.

57. Royal Institute of International Affairs, Nationalism, p. 74; S. G. Simonsen ‘Raising “The Russian Question”: Ethnicity and Statehood – Russkie and Rossiya’, Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 2 (1996), pp. 96–110. See too N. Lynn and V. Bogorov ‘Reimaging the Russian Idea’, in G. Herb and D. Kaplan (eds) Nested Identities: Nationalism, Territory and Scale (Lanham, Md, 1999)-> pp. 101–7; R. Szporluk ‘Nationalism and Communism: refl ections: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Poland’, Nations and Nationalism, 4 (1998), pp. 308–11.

58. Royal Institute of International Affairs, Nationalism, p. 79.

59. A. Powell ‘The Nationalist Trend in Soviet Historiography’, Soviet Studies, 2 (1950/1), pp. 373–5; D. Brandenberger National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the formation of Modern Russian National Identity 1931–1956 (Cambridge, Mass., 2002), pp. 71–6, 86–94.

60. M. Perrie ‘Nationalism and History: the Cult of Ivan the Terrible in Stalin’s Russia’, in Hosking and Service (eds), Russian Nationalism, pp. 107–13; K. E. Platt and D. Brandenberger Terribly Romantic, Terribly Progressive, or Terribly Tragic: Rehabilitating Ivan IV under I. V. Stalin’, Russian Review, 58 (1999), pp. 637–8.

61. R. Bergan Sergei Eisenstein: a Life in Confl ict (New York, 1997), pp. 296–306; see too D. Brandenberger ‘Soviet social mentalite and Russo-centrism on the eve of war’, Jahrbuch für die Geschichte Osteruropas, 44 (1996), pp. 388, 392–4.

62. R. Stites Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society since 1900 (Cambridge, 1992) p. 57.

63. Royal Institute of International Affairs, Nationalism, p. 79; see too Lynn and Bogorov, ‘Reimaging the Russian Idea’, pp. 107–8.

64. Martin, ‘Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, pp. 830–31, 837, 845–9.

65. N. Bugai The Deportation of Peoples in the Soviet Union (New York, 1996), pp. 28–31; Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 199–200; Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, pp. 9–19.

66. Martin, ‘Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, pp. 853–7.

67. P. J. Duncan ‘Ukrainians’, in G. Smith (ed.) The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union (London, 1990), pp. 96–7.