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32 NHS Choices (2016), Vaginal thrush’, www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Thrush/Pages/Causes.aspx

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33 Park, A. (2015), ‘Babies in the womb aren’t so sterile after all’, TIME, 28 December, time.com/4159249/baby-microbiome-womb

34 Stout, M.J., Conlon, B., Landeau, M., Lee, I., Bower, C., Qiuhong, A., et al. (2013), ‘Identification of intracellular bacteria in the basal plate of the human placenta in term and preterm gestations’, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Vol. 208(3); 226, e221–e227, www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3740162

35 Aagaard, K., Ma, J., Antony, K.M., Ganu, R., Petrosino, J., and Versalovic, J. (2014), ‘The placenta harbors a unique microbiome’. Science Translational Medicine, Vol. 6(237): 237ra65, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/24848255

36 Cao, B., Stout, M.J., Lee, I., and Mysorekar, I.U. (2014), ‘Placental microbiome and its role in preterm birth’, NeoReviews, Vol. 15(12), e537–e545, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4307601

37 Mueller, N.T., Bakacs, E., Combellick, J., Grigoryan, Z., and Dominguez-Bello, M.G. (2015), ‘The infant microbiome development: mom matters’, Trends in Molecular Medicine, Vol. 21(2), pp.109–117, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4464665

38 Koren, O., Goodrich, J.K., Cullender, T.C., Spor, A., Laitinen, K., BaЁckhed, H.K., et al. (2012), ‘Host remodeling of the gut microbiome and metabolic changes during pregnancy’, Cell, 150, pp.470–480, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/22863002

39 Blaser, M.J., Missing Microbes: How the overuse of antibiotics is fueling our modern plagues (Henry Holt and Co., an imprint of Macmillan Publishers, New York, 2014.), p.94.

40 Dietert, R. & Dietert, J. (2012), ‘The completed self: an immunological view of the human-microbiome superorganism and risk of chronic diseases’ Entropy, Vol. 14, pp.2036–2065, www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/14/11/2036

41 Barker, D.J.P., and Godfrey, K.M (2001), ‘Fetal programming and adult health’, Public Health Nutrition, Vol. 4 (2b), pp.611–624, dx.doi.org/10.1079/PHN2001145, published online 27 September 2007

42 Okada, H., Kuhn, C., Feillet, H, and Bach, J-F. (2010), ‘The “hygiene hypothesis” for autoimmune and allergic diseases: an update’, Clinical and Experimental Immunology, Vol. 160(1), pp.1–9, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2841828

43 Von Mutius, E. (2010), ‘99th Dahlem conference on infection, inflammation and chronic inflammatory disorders: farm lifestyles and the hygiene hypothesis’, Clinical and Experimental Immunology, Vol. 160(1), pp.130–5; www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20415863

44 BabyMed, ‘En caul birth’, www.babymed.com/en-caul-birth

45 Blaser, M.J., op. cit.,p.95

46 Rodriguez, J.M., Murphy, K., Stanton, C. Ross, R.P., Kober, O.I., Juge, N., et al. (2015), ‘The composition of the gut microbiota throughout life, with an emphasis on early life’, Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease, Vol. 26: 26050, www.microbecolhealthdis.net/index.php/mehd/article/view/26050

47 Research by Backhed et al in 2015 suggests that the act of stopping breastfeeding (rather than simply the introduction of solids) could play a part in determining when the microbiome stabilises, but how and why is still unclear.

48 Ward, R.E., Ninonuevo M., Mills, D.A., Lebrilla, C.B., German, J.B. (2006), ‘In vitro fermentation of breast milk oligosaccharides by Bifidobacterium infantis and Lactobacillus gasseri’, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 72, pp.4497–9

49 Kashtanova, D.A., Popenko, A.S., Tkacheva, O.N., Tyakht, A.B., Alexeev, D.G. and Boytsov S.A. (2015), ‘Association between the gut microbiota and diet: fetal life, early childhood, and further life’, Nutrition, published online 31 December 2015, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0899900715005341

50 Voreades, N., Kozil, A., and Weir, T.L. (2014), ‘Diet and the development of the human intestinal microbiome’, Frontiers in Microbiology, Vol. 5, p494, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4170138

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51 WidstroЁm, A.M., Ransjo-Arvidson, A.B., Christensson, K., Matthiesen, A.S., Winberg, J., and UvnaЁs-Moberg, K. (1987), ‘Gastric suction in healthy newborn infants: effects on circulation and developing feeding behaviour’, Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, Vol. 76, pp.566–572

52 WidstroЁm, A.M., Lilja, G., Aaltomaa-Michalias, P., DahlloЁf, A., Lintula, M., and Nissen, E. (2011), ‘Newborn behaviour to locate the breast when skin-to-skin: a possible method for enabling early self-regulation’, Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, Vol. 100(1), pp.79–85, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/20712833

53 La Belle Colustrum, ‘Components of colustrum’, labelleinc.com/human- health/components-of-colostrum

54 Blaser, M.J., Missing Microbes: How the overuse of antibiotics is fueling our modern plagues (Henry Holt and Co., an imprint of Macmillan Publishers, New York, 2014.), p.94

55 Cabrera-Rubio, R., Collado, M.C., Laitinen, K., Salminen, S., Isolauri, E., and Mira, A. (2012), The human milk microbiome changes over lactation and is shaped by maternal weight and mode of delivery. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 96(3), pp.544–51

56 HiPP organic, ‘Our formula milks’, www.hipp.co.uk/products/our-baby- milks

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57 US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1999), ‘Achievements in public health, 1900–1999: healthier mothers and babies’, www.cdc.gov/ mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4838a2.htm

58 Kassebaum, N.J., Bertozzi-Villa, A, Coggeshall, M.S., Shackelford, K.A., Steiner, C., Heuton, K.R., et al. (2013), ‘Global, regional, and national levels and causes of maternal mortality during 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study’, The Lancet, Vol.384, Issue 9947, pp.980–1004, www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2814%2960696-6/abstract

59 Health and Social Care Information Centre (2015), NHS maternity statistics – England, 2013-14, www.hscic.gov.uk/catalogue/PUB16725

60 World Health Organization news release (2015), Casearean sections should only be performed when medically necessary, www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2015/caesarean-sections/en/

61 World Health Organization Global Health Observatory data repository, ‘Millennium Development Goal 5: Maternal and reproductive health. Women: data by country’, apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.REPWOMEN39?lang=en

62 The Associated Press (2015), ‘New rules to curb “epidemic” of caesarean births in Brazil (update)’, MedicalXpress, 7 January, medicalxpress.com/news/2015-01-curb-epidemic-cesarean-births-brazil.html

63 Holmgren G, SjoЁholm L, Stark M. The Misgav Ladach method for cesarean section: method description. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1999 Aug;78(7):615-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10422908