July 2017.

428

В первом квартале 2019 года доход Facebook от рекламы с каждого пользователя в США и Канаде составил 30 долларов, что в пересчете на год дает 120 долларов. Если без данных об активности в сети пользователи стоят на 60 % дешевле, то стоимость данных составляет (минимум) $120 × 0,6 = $72. Оценки из отчета Facebook за I квартал 2019 года, http://investor.fb.com; Johnson G.A. et al., ‘Consumer Privacy Choice in Online Advertising: Who Opts Out and at What Cost to Industry?’, Simon Business School Working paper, 2017; Leswing K., Apple makes billions from Google’s dominance in search – and it’s a bigger business than iCloud or Apple Music’, Business Insider, 29 September 2018; Bell K., ‘iPhone’s user base to surpass 1 billion units by 2019’, Cult of Mac, 8 February 2017.

429

Pandey E. and Parker S., ‘Facebook was designed to exploit human “vulnerability”’, Axios, 9 November 2017.

430

Kafka P., ‘Amazon? HBO? Netflix thinks its real competitor is… sleep’, Vox, 17 April 2017.

431

О дизайне: Harris T., ‘How Technology is Hijacking Your Mind – from a Magician and Google Design Ethicist’, Medium, 18 May 2016.

432

Bajarin B., ‘Apple’s Penchant for Consumer Security’, Tech.pinions, 18 April 2016.

433

Pandey E. and Parker S., ‘Facebook was designed to exploit human “vulnerability”’, Axios, 9 November 2017.

434

Даже главная на сегодня функция в соцсетях, кнопка «нравится», появилась в совсем другую эпоху интернета. Источник: Locke M., ‘How Likes Went Bad’, Medium, 25 April 2018.

435

Lewis P. ‘“Our minds can be hijacked”: the tech insiders who fear a smartphone dystopia’, Guardian, 6 October 2017.

436

‘Who can see the comments on my Moments posts?’, WeChat Help Center, October 2018.

437

Материалы о цензуре: King G. et al., ‘Reverse-engineering censorship in China: Randomized experimentation and participant observation’, Science, 2014; Tucker J., ‘This explains how social media can both weaken – and strengthen – democracy’, Washington Post, 6 December 2017.

438

Das S. and Kramer A., Self-Censorship on Facebook, AAAI, 2013.

439

Davidsen C., ‘You Are Not a Target’, 7 June 2015. Видео: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LGiiQUMaShw&feature=youtu.be.

440

Issenberg S., ‘How Obama’s Team Used Big Data to Rally Voters’, MIT Technology Review, 19 December 2012.

441

Материал и цитаты из Rodrigues Fowler Y. and Goodman C., ‘How Tinder Could Take Back the White House’, New York Times, 22 June 2017.

442

Solon O. and Siddiqui S., ‘Russia-backed Facebook posts “reached 126m Americans” during US election’, The Guardian, 31 October 2017; Statt N., ‘Twitter says it exposed nearly 700,000 people to Russian propaganda during US election’, The Verge, 19 January 2018.

443

Watts D.J. and Rothschild D.M., ‘Don’t blame the election on fake news. Blame it on the media’, Columbia Journalism Review, 2017. См. также: Persily N. and Stamos A., ‘Regulating Online Political Advertising by Foreign Governments and Nationals’, in McFaul M. (ed.), ‘Securing American Elections’, Stanford University, June 2019.

444

Confessore N. and Yourish K., ‘$2 Billion Worth of Free Media for Donald Trump’, New York Times, 16 March 2016.

445

Guess A. et al., ‘Selective Exposure to Misinformation: Evidence from the consumption of fake news during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign’, 2018; Guess A. et al., ‘Fake news, Facebook ads, and misperceptions: Assessing information quality in the 2018 U.S. midterm election campaign’, 2019; Narayanan V. et al., ‘Russian Involvement and Junk News during Brexit’, Oxford Comprop Data Memo, 2017.

446

Pareene A., ‘How We Fooled Donald Trump Into Retweeting Benito Mussolini’, Gawker, 28 February 2016.

447

Hessdec A., ‘On Twitter, a Battle Among Political Bots’, New York Times, 14 December 2016.

448

Shao C. et al., ‘The spread of low-credibility content by social bots’, Nature Communications, 2018.

449

Musgrave S., ‘ABC, AP and others ran with false information on shooter’s ties to extremist groups’, Politico, 16 February 2018.

450

O’Sullivan D., ‘American media keeps falling for Russian trolls’, CNN, 21 June 2018.

451

Phillips W., ‘How journalists should not cover an online conspiracy theory’, The Guardian, 6 August 2018.

452

AstroTurf – марка искусственного покрытия для стадионов, имитирующего траву. – Прим. ред.

453

О манипуляциях средствами массовой информации: Phillips W., ‘The Oxygen of Amplification’, Data & Society Report, 2018.

454

Weiss M., ‘Revealed: The Secret KGB Manual for Recruiting Spies’, The Daily Beast, 27 December 2017.

455

DiResta R., ‘There are bots. Look around’, Ribbon Farm, 23 May 2017.

456

‘Over 9000 Penises’, Know Your Meme, 2008.

457

Zannettou S. et al., ‘On the Origins of Memes by Means of Fringe Web Communities’, arXiv, 2018.

458

Feinberg A., ‘This is the Daily Stormer’s playbook’, Huffington Post, 13 December 2017.

459

Collins K. and Roose K., ‘Tracing a Meme From the Internet’s Fringe to a Republican Slogan’, New York Times, 4 November 2018.

460

Переход в реальность: O’Sullivan D., ‘Russian trolls created Facebook events seen by more than 300,000 users’, CNN, 26 January 2018; Taub A.